Whether this autocracy was to be permanently limited by the new changes, or only at the continuing discretion of the autocrat, became a subject of heated controversy between conflicting parties in the state. After 167 years of German language administration and education, laws were declared in 1888 and 1889 where the rights of the police and manorial justice were transferred from Baltic German control to officials of the central government. Alexander II obtained Outer Manchuria from the Qing China between 1858–1860 and sold the last territories of Russian America, Alaska, to the United States in 1867. In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). This measure, which was endorsed by the third Duma in an act passed on 21 December 1908, is calculated to have far-reaching and profound effects on the rural economy of Russia. He presided over the redrawing of the map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna (1815), which ultimately made Alexander the monarch of Congress Poland. More generally, he finds that the well-being of the Russian people declined during most of the 18th century, but increased slowly from the end of the 18th century to 1914.[64][65]. He raised academic standards, improved facilities, and opened the admission doors a bit wider. They accepted land reform but insisted that property owners be fully paid. 1905 map of Siberia. Japan strongly opposed Russian expansion, and defeated Russia in a war in 1904–1905. A committed Slavophile, Alexander III believed that Russia could be saved from turmoil only by shutting itself off from the subversive influences of Western Europe. The ecclesiastical heads of the national Russian Orthodox Church consisted of three metropolitans (Saint Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv), fourteen archbishops and fifty bishops, all drawn from the ranks of the monastic (celibate) clergy. Russia originated from the state of Kiev on the 9th century and was ruled for almost 1000 years by an autocratic regime. After Russia and its allies defeated Napoleon, Alexander became known as the 'saviour of Europe'. A major peasant uprising took place in 1773, after Catherine legalised the selling of serfs separate from land. By the time of her death in 1796, Catherine's expansionist policy had developed Russia as a major European power. Recent research by Russian scholars disputes this interpretation. In order to repress further revolts, censorship was intensified, including the constant surveillance of schools and universities. From the 10th through the 17th centuries, the land was ruled by a noble class, the boyars, and subsequently by an emperor. The principal ecclesiastical authority of the Russian Church that extended its jurisdiction over the entire territory of the Empire, including the ex-Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti, was the Most Holy Synod, the civilian Over Procurator of the Holy Synod being one of the council of ministers with wide de facto powers in ecclesiastical matters. Many proprietors contrived to curtail the allotments which the peasants had occupied under serfdom, and frequently deprived them of precisely the parts of which they were most in need: pasture lands around their houses. Of the elected members, 3 were returned by the "black" clergy (the monks), 3 by the "white" clergy (seculars), 18 by the corporations of nobles, 6 by the academy of sciences and the universities, 6 by the chambers of commerce, 6 by the industrial councils, 34 by the governments having zemstvos, 16 by those having no zemstvos, and 6 by Poland. While the vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West. In the 19th century, they were closely watched by the imperial secret police, and thousands were exiled to Siberia. "Empire" as a description of foreign policy, This page was last edited on 16 January 2021, at 20:37. The empire had a predominantly agricultural economy, with low productivity on large estates worked by Russian peasants, known as serfs, who were tied to the land in a feudal arrangement. He taught his imperial pupils to fear freedom of speech and press, as well as disliking democracy, constitutions, and the parliamentary system. The establishment of a judicial system on these principles constituted a major change in the conception of the Russian state, which, by placing the administration of justice outside the sphere of the executive power, ceased to be a despotism. On the international stage Yaroslav plays the medieval game of matrimonial diplomacy as assiduously as any of his contemporaries. [21], The retaliation for the revolt made "December Fourteenth" a day long remembered by later revolutionary movements. In particular, they called into being a loyal and competent administration, and centralised the government. Nicholas tolerated Uvarov's achievements until 1848, then reversed his innovations. Film «Moscow clad in snow», 00:07:22, 1908, first Russian colonization of the Pacific, Russia in the American Revolutionary War § Russian Diplomacy during the War, introduced a number of increasingly erratic decrees, Government reforms of Alexander II of Russia, 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, History of the administrative division of Russia, Brig "Mercury" Attacked by Two Turkish Ships, "Chapter One On the Essence of Supreme Sovereign Power, Article 7. Saint Petersburg gradually extended and consolidated its control over the Caucasus in the course of the 19th century at the expense of Persia through the Russo-Persian Wars of 1804–13 and 1826–28 and the respectively ensuing treaties of Gulistan and Turkmenchay,[53] as well as through the Caucasian War (1817–1864). [28] Poland was punished by losing its distinctive political and judicial rights, with Russianization imposed on its schools and courts.[29]. France, Britain and Austria tried to intervene in the crisis but were unable to do so. The military history of the Russian Empire encompasses the history of armed conflict in which the Russian Empire participated. ", Olson, Gust, and Aleksei I. Miller. Alexander II decided to abolish serfdom from above, with ample provision for the landowners, rather than wait for it to be abolished from below in a revolutionary way that would hurt the landowners. [74] Newspapers were strictly limited in what they could publish, as intellectuals favored literary magazines for their publishing outlets. The legal code known as Russkaya Pravda (Russian Truth) is founded in his reign. The peasants were represented by delegates selected by the regional subdivisions called volosts. Elizabeth supported the arts, architecture and the sciences (for example with the foundation of the Moscow University). Beketov was sent to the Lena River in 1631, ... Russian Empire Administrative divisions. Novgorod Republic • Vladimir-Suzdal Educational institutions in the empire included: Former empire in Eurasia (1721–1917) and North America (1721–1867), For other places with a similar name, see. China was too weak to resist, and was pulled increasingly into the Russian sphere. The allotments could be redeemed by peasants with the help of the Crown, and then they were freed from all obligations to the landlord. Another significant result of the 1877–78 Russo-Turkish War in Russia's favour was the acquisition from the Ottomans of the provinces of Batum, Ardahan and Kars in Transcaucasia, which were transformed into the militarily administered regions of Batum Oblast and Kars Oblast. "Russia as a great power, 1815–2007.". By 1900 there were 17,000 university students, and over 30,000 were enrolled in specialized technical institutes. The order of November 1906 had provided that the various strips of land held by each peasant should be merged into a single holding; the Duma, however, on the advice of the government, left this to the future, as an ideal that could only gradually be realized. In 1905, a Council of Ministers (Sovyet Ministrov) was created, under a minister president, the first appearance of a prime minister in Russia. She slowed down the reforms and led a successful war against the Ottoman Empire. In these assemblies the wealthiest proprietors sat in person while the lesser proprietors were represented by delegates. By 1825, the national government operated six universities, forty-eight secondary state schools, and 337 improved primary schools. After the Revolution of 1905, Russia developed a new type of government which became difficult to categorize. Kennard, Howard Percy, and Netta Peacock, eds. The Mensheviks believed that the Russian working class was insufficiently developed and that socialism could be achieved only after a period of bourgeois democratic rule. The first of these, based on the English model, are the courts of the elected justices of the peace, with jurisdiction over petty causes, whether civil or criminal; the second, based on the French model, are the ordinary tribunals of nominated judges, sitting with or without a jury to hear important cases. The formerly Swedish-controlled Baltic provinces (Courland, Livonia and Estonia) were incorporated into the Russian Empire after the defeat of Sweden in the Great Northern War. The empire had its genesis when the Russian nobility sought a new bloodline for its monarchy. By the middle of 1915, the impact of the war was demoralizing. [39], In 1894, Alexander III was succeeded by his son, Nicholas II, who was committed to retaining the autocracy that his father had left him. Subjects of the Russian Empire were segregated into sosloviyes, or social estates (classes) such as nobility (dvoryanstvo), clergy, merchants, cossacks and peasants. The Social Democrats differed from the SRs in that they believed a revolution must rely on urban workers, not the peasantry. Then, by plotting with the rulers of Austria and Prussia, she incorporated territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Partitions of Poland, pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe. Other articles where History of Russia is discussed: Russia: Prehistory and the rise of the Rus: …is now the territory of Russia since the 2nd millennium bce, but little is known about their ethnic identity, institutions, and activities. "Writing the History of the Russian Revolution after the Fall of Communism. [26], Russian tsars crushed two uprisings in their newly acquired Polish territories: the November Uprising in 1830 and the January Uprising in 1863. Catherine successfully waged war against the Ottoman Empire and advanced Russia's southern boundary to the Black Sea. Russian Empire, including Congress Poland—a little more than 4 percent of the entire population. The ministries were as follows: The Most Holy Synod (established in 1721) was the supreme organ of government of the Orthodox Church in Russia. The latter path was advocated by Slavophiles, who held the "decadent" West in contempt. Not that the regime in Russia had become in any true sense constitutional, far less parliamentary. However the Russian forces fell further behind the technology, training and organization of the German, French and particularly the British military. The military of the Russian Empire consisted of the Imperial Russian Army and the Imperial Russian Navy. (2004) "The Siberian Frontier and Russia's Position in World History,", Hellie, Richard. From 1875 to 1877, the Balkan crisis intensified with rebellions against Ottoman rule by various Slavic nationalities, which the Ottoman Turks dominated since the 16th century. There he built Russia's new capital, Saint Petersburg, on the Neva River, to replace Moscow, which had long been Russia's cultural center. Soviets (councils of workers) appeared in most cities to direct revolutionary activity. The late 1820s were successful military years. Please select which sections you would like to print: Corrections? [9] Nearly the entire population was devoted to agricultural estates. European Russia thus embraced 59 governorates and 1 oblast (that of the Don). Moscow was then a minor outpost near the border of that principality. "The Sovereign Emperor exercises legislative power in conjunction with the State Council and State Duma". The deep indentations of the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland were surrounded by what is ethnically Finnish territory, and it is only at the very head of the latter gulf that the Russians had taken firm foothold by erecting their capital at the mouth of the Neva River. But the socialists rejected the concessions as insufficient and tried to organise new strikes. Under the Treaty of Nystad of 1721, the Baltic German nobility retained considerable powers Mironov assesses the effects of the reforms of latter 19th-century especially in terms of the 1861 emancipation of the serfs, agricultural output trends, various standard of living indicators, and taxation of peasants. In spite of this, all three were popular tsars who left behind a good reputation among the people and whom the Slavophiles of the 19th century idealized as model Russian monarchs. On the left the Socialist Revolutionaries and Social Democrats wanted to expropriate the landowners, without payment, but debated whether to divide the land up among the peasants, or to put it into collective local ownership. Meanwhile, France, looking for allies against Germany after 1871, formed a military alliance in 1894, with large-scale loans to Russia, sales of arms, and warships, as well as diplomatic support. Plagued with logistical problems, outdated military equipment and incompetent Russian officers, Russi… Slavs in Russia: from 1500 BC The steppes, which form a broad pathway into southern Russia from central Asia, have been occupied by nomads since distant prehistoric times. To the East it had the Asiatic territories of the Empire, Siberia and the Kyrgyz steppes, from both of which it was separated by the Ural Mountains, the Ural River and the Caspian Sea — the administrative boundary, however, partly extending into Asia on the Siberian slope of the Urals. The Council of the Empire, or Imperial Council, as reconstituted for this purpose, consisted of 196 members, of whom 98 were nominated by the Emperor, while 98 were elective. [63], The Russian Empire was, predominantly, a rural society spread over vast spaces. Much of Russia's expansion occurred in the 17th century, culminating in the first Russian colonisation of the Pacific in the mid-17th century, the Russo-Polish War (1654–67) that incorporated left-bank Ukraine, and the Russian conquest of Siberia. [50], The Tsarist system was overthrown in the February Revolution in 1917. Empress Catherine the Great (reigned 1762–1796) presided over a golden age; she expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Great's (Peter I's) policy of modernization along Western European lines. The events of the February Revolution and the fierce political struggles inside army units facilitated disintegration and made it irreversible. Steven Hoch, "Did Russia's Emancipated Serfs Really Pay Too Much for Too Little Land? In 1894 municipal institutions, with still more restricted powers, were granted to several towns in Siberia, and in 1895 to some in Caucasia. There were regional variations, with more poverty in the heavily populated central black earth region, and there were temporary downturns in 1891-93 and 1905–1908. Russian Republic • October Revolution • Civil War(Red Army • White Guard • separatists • others). When the procession reached the palace, soldiers opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. The Siberia Governorate was established in 1708 as part of the administrative reforms of Peter I. ", Stephen Woodburn, "Reaction Reconsidered: Education and the State in Russia, 1825–1848.". [37] However, Britain became alarmed when Russia threatened Afghanistan, with the implicit threat to India, and decades of diplomatic maneuvering resulted, called The Great Game. Russian Recognition of the United States, 1803. This council consists of all the ministers and of the heads of the principal administrations. It was reserved for the third Duma, after the 1905 Revolution, to begin the reversal of this process.[d]. In every group, women were far less literate than men. The moderate groups were satisfied. During the years 1861 to 1892 the land owned by the nobles decreased 30%, or from 850,000 to 610,000 km2 (210,000,000 to 150,000,000 acres); during the following four years an additional 8,577 km2 (2,119,500 acres) were sold; and since then the sales went on at an accelerated rate, until in 1903 alone close to 8,000 km2 (2,000,000 acres) passed out of their hands. The Russian Empire’s two major cities were Moscow and St. Petersburg, the latter was the new capital of the Empire, and was founded in 1703. Modernization of government required much larger numbers, but that, in turn, required an educational system that could provide suitable training. This marked the beginning of the Revolution of 1905. Although he made and annulled all senior ecclesiastical appointments, he did not determine the questions of dogma or church teaching. In January 1905, an incident known as "Bloody Sunday" occurred when Father Georgy Gapon led an enormous crowd to the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg to present a petition to the Tsar. [68][69], The former serfs became peasants, joining the millions of farmers who were already in the peasant status. [12], Catherine the Great was a German princess who married Peter III, the German heir to the Russian crown. That war broke out when the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with strong German support, tried to suppress Serbian nationalism, and Russia supported Serbia. Some favored imitating Western Europe while others were against this and called for a return to the traditions of the past. Total grain production increased, after allowing for population growth in exports. Hundreds of thousands of move to cities to work in factories, but they typically retained their village connections. Foreign policy and the Russo-Japanese War, Revolution of 1905 and the First and Second Dumas, https://www.britannica.com/place/Russian-Empire. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. Within one year, Russian troops were nearing Istanbul and the Ottomans surrendered. Russian agricultural kholops were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679. It is a special feature of Russia that it has few free outlets to the open sea other than on the ice-bound shores of the Arctic Ocean. Thence it ran to the Curonian Lagoon in the southern Baltic Sea, and thence to the mouth of the Danube, taking a great circular sweep to the west to embrace Poland, and separating Russia from Prussia, Austrian Galicia and Romania. Relations with the Grand Principality of Finland were also regulated by the 2nd article, "The Grand Principality of Finland, constituted an indivisible part of the Russian state, in its internal affairs governed by special regulations at the base of special laws" and the law of 10 June 1910. The result of this was that while the British and French colonial empires declined in the 20th century, a large portion of the Russian Empire's territory remained together, first within the Soviet Union, and after 1991 in the still-smaller Russian Federation. The Orthodox hierarchy was suspicious of education – they saw no religious need whatever for literacy. Popular dissatisfaction usually turned against these favourites rather than the tsar himself, such as during the urban uprisings (1648–50) that led to the exile of Morozov, and the great peasant rebellion (1670–71) led by the Cossack Stenka Razin. With his authority destroyed, Nicholas abdicated on 2 March 1917. In practice, however, the degree of control he could exercise over the empire was effectively limited by the size of the country, the inadequacy of the administration, and a generally nonmodern conception of politics. The Russian Empire[b] was a historical empire that extended across Eurasia and North America from 1721, following the end of the Great Northern War, until the Republic was proclaimed by the Provisional Government that took power after the February Revolution of 1917. The class of kholops, close in status to slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation. Prior to the issuance of the October Manifesto, the tsar ruled as an absolute monarch, subject to only two limitations on his authority (both of which were intended to protect the existing system): the Emperor and his consort must both belong to the Russian Orthodox Church, and he must obey the laws of succession (Pauline Laws) established by Paul I. It was the supreme court of cassation; an audit office, a high court of justice for all political offences; one of its departments fulfilled the functions of a heralds' college. In sharp contrast to Western Europe, the entire empire had a very small bureaucracy – about 17,000 public officials, most of whom lived in Moscow or St. Petersburg. This area (Bessarabia) was among the Russian Empire's last territorial increments in Europe. As part of this and her own political aspirations, Catherine waged a new war against Persia in 1796 after they had invaded eastern Georgia; victorious, she established Russian rule over it and expelled the newly established Russian garrisons in the Caucasus. [35][36], Russia had much less difficulty in expanding to the south, including the conquest of Turkestan. The judicial system of the Russian Empire, existed from the mid-19th century, was established by the "tsar emancipator" Alexander II, by the statute of 20 November 1864 (Sudebny Ustav). All owners of houses, and tax-paying merchants, artisans and workmen are enrolled on lists in a descending order according to their assessed wealth. For administration, Russia was divided (as of 1914) into 81 governorates (guberniyas), 20 oblasts, and 1 okrug. Under Pobedonostsev, revolutionaries were persecuted and a policy of Russification was carried out throughout the Empire. In 1913, 80% of the people were peasants. The war ended in 1721 when an exhausted Sweden asked for peace with Russia. Nevertheless, Catherine realized that serfdom must be ended, going so far in her Nakaz ("Instruction") to say that serfs were "just as good as we are" – a comment the nobility received with disgust. Some of the tsar’s ostensible subjects, such as the inhabitants of Siberia and the Cossacks, lived in completely autonomous communities, only nominally under the authority of the tsar. In 1719, the governorate was divided into three provinces, Vyatka, Solikamsk and Tobolsk. In 1854–55 Russia lost to Britain, France and Turkey in the Crimean War, which was fought primarily in the Crimean peninsula, and to a lesser extent in the Baltic during the Åland War, part of the Crimean War. On 17 October 1905, the situation changed: the ruler voluntarily limited his legislative power by decreeing that no measure was to become law without the consent of the Imperial Duma, a freely elected national assembly established by the Organic Law issued on 28 April 1906. More than 88 million of the Russians were peasants. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. The Transcaucasus Railway connected the city of Batum on the Black Sea and the oil center of Baku on the Caspian Sea. Further reforms of 1860s included socio-economic reforms to clarify the position of the Russian government in the field of property rights and their protection. The Bolsheviks, under Vladimir Lenin, supported the idea of forming a small elite of professional revolutionists, subject to strong party discipline, to act as the vanguard of the proletariat in order to seize power by force. They found it in Michael Romanov, a young boyar (nobleman), who was elected tsar in 1613. [70], After the Emancipation reform, one quarter of peasants received allotments of only 1.2 hectares (2.9 acres) per male, and one-half less than 3.4 to 4.6 hectares (8.5 to 11.4 acres); the normal size of the allotment necessary for the subsistence of a family under the three-fields system is estimated at 11 to 17 hectares (28 to 42 acres). Mironovassesses the effects of the reforms of latter 19th-century especially in terms of the 1861 eman… Literacy among women was very low. All religions were freely professed, except that certain restrictions were laid upon the Jews and some marginal sects. She also removed the tax on beards, instituted by Peter the Great.[13]. Poland was divided in the 1790–1815 era, with much of its land and population being taken under Russian rule. Catherine the Great (1762-1796) Another ‘great’ Russian, Catherine was an admirer of Peter and continued his process of modernising Russia. It was catastrophic for France, as his army was decimated through the winter. Newly discovered Arctic islands became part of the Russian Empire as Russian explorers found them: the New Siberian Islands from the early 18th century; Severnaya Zemlya ("Emperor Nicholas II Land") first mapped and claimed as late as 1913. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree.... Michael, detail of a mid-19th-century coloured lithograph by Peter Borel based on a 17th-century painting. Russian nationalist opinion became a major domestic factor in its support for liberating Balkan Christians from Ottoman rule and making Bulgaria and Serbia independent. See main article on Russo-Japanese War The war between Russia and the Japanese Empire broke out on February 8, 1904 with a Japanese attack upon the Russian Far East Fleet stationed at Port Arthur. Catherine the Great extended Russian political control over the lands of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The rise of the Russian Empire coincided with the decline of neighboring rival powers: the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia and the Ottoman Empire. Rabinowitch argues that "[t]he February 1917 revolution ... grew out of prewar political and economic instability, technological backwardness, and fundamental social divisions, coupled with gross mismanagement of the war effort, continuing military defeats, domestic economic dislocation, and outrageous scandals surrounding the monarchy. As a result, Pan-Slavists were left with a legacy of bitterness against Austria-Hungary and Germany for failing to back Russia. This system – based partly on English, partly on French models – was built up on certain broad principles: the separation of judicial and administrative functions; the independence of the judges and courts; the publicity of trials and oral procedure; and the equality of all classes before the law. Another radical group was the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, exponents of Marxism in Russia. The serfdom that had developed in Russia in the 16th century, and had become enshrined by law in 1649, was abolished in 1861. Russian victories in these wars greatly expanded Peter’s empire, and the defeat of Sweden won Russia direct access to the Baltic Sea, a lifelong obsession of the Russian leader. Their particular needs - Russian-Turkish when was the russian empire founded sees Russia seize land from Ottoman rule and making Bulgaria and independent! Argues that they believed a Revolution must rely on urban workers, and theories Empire... 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